Of Human Bondage

By W. Somerset Maugham

W. Somerset Maugham’s “Of Human Bondage” is a bildungsroman that follows the life of a young boy named Philip Carey. The novel explores themes of love, obsession, and self-discovery. Maugham employs vivid imagery and powerful metaphors to convey Philip’s journey from a vulnerable child to a confident adult. The novel is a masterpiece of modernist literature and is regarded as one of Maugham’s greatest works.

Themes 📚

1. The Search for Identity – Throughout the novel, Philip struggles with finding his identity and purpose in life. He grapples with questions of what he wants to do, who he wants to be, and what he wants to believe in.
2. The Human Condition – Maugham examines the universal struggles of the human condition, such as loneliness, love, and self-doubt. He shows how these struggles are an inherent part of being human, and how they shape and define us.
3. Obsession and Desire – Philip’s obsession with Mildred, a cold-hearted waitress, becomes a central theme in the novel. Maugham depicts the destructive nature of desire and the toll it can take on one’s emotional and mental well-being.
4. The Illusion of Freedom – The novel explores the idea that true freedom may be an illusion. Philip is constrained by his upbringing, societal norms, and his own insecurities, leading him to make choices that are not always in his best interest.
5. The Role of Art in Life – Maugham uses the character of Fanny Price, a struggling artist, to explore the idea that art can be a means of self-expression and a path to self-discovery.
6. Religion and Faith – Philip’s experiences with religion and faith are a recurring theme in the novel. Maugham explores the tension between reason and faith, and the role that religion plays in shaping one’s worldview.
7. Class and Society – Maugham portrays the social hierarchy of early 20th century England and the impact it has on individual lives. He shows how class and societal expectations can be oppressive and limit one’s opportunities for personal and professional growth.

Use of Literary Devices ✍🏽

1. Imagery – Maugham uses vivid sensory details to create a rich and immersive world. He describes scenes and characters in a way that engages the reader’s senses, making the story come alive.
2. Metaphor – The author employs metaphors to draw comparisons between disparate things, helping to create powerful and evocative imagery. For example, he compares Mildred to a parasite, highlighting the destructive nature of their relationship.
3. Symbolism – The novel contains a number of symbolic elements, such as the recurring motif of hands and feet, which represent the struggle for control and agency in one’s life.
4. Foreshadowing – Maugham uses foreshadowing to hint at events to come, building suspense and anticipation. For example, early in the novel, Philip has a dream in which he is lost and alone, foreshadowing the isolation he will later experience.
5. Irony – The author employs irony to create a sense of tension and complexity in the story. For example, Philip’s pursuit of Mildred, which he believes will bring him happiness, ultimately leads to his emotional ruin.
6. Allusion – Maugham references other works of literature and art to enrich the themes and ideas of the novel. For example, he alludes to Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” to draw parallels between Philip’s struggles and those of the famous tragic hero.
7. Repetition – The author uses repetition to emphasize certain themes and ideas, creating a sense of rhythm and continuity in the novel. For example, he repeats the phrase “of human bondage” throughout the novel to highlight the ways in which individuals can be bound by their desires and fears.
8. Characterization – Maugham creates complex and nuanced characters, whose motivations and actions are shaped by their past experiences and personal beliefs. He uses characterization to explore the human condition and the complexities of human relationships.
9. Flashback – The author uses flashbacks to provide insight into characters’ past experiences, giving the reader a deeper understanding of their motivations and behavior.
10. Point of view – The novel is narrated from Philip’s point of view, allowing the reader to experience the story through his eyes. This perspective creates a sense of intimacy and empathy, drawing the reader into the character’s emotional journey.

Examples of Literary Devices 📋

1. Allusion

Example	Explanation
1. References to literary works	Throughout the novel, Maugham alludes to various literary works, such as the Bible and Shakespeare, to enrich the narrative and provide context for the characters’ experiences.
2. Allusions to historical events	Maugham refers to historical events like the Boer War and the early 20th-century social and political climate in England to ground the story in a specific time and place.
3. References to art and artists	The novel includes allusions to famous artists and their works, reflecting Philip’s interest in art and his pursuit of self-expression.

2. Foil

Example	Explanation
1. Mildred vs. Sally	Mildred, Philip’s cruel and manipulative love interest, serves as a foil to Sally, a kind and genuine woman who truly cares for Philip. Their contrasting personalities highlight Philip’s growth and evolving understanding of love.
2. Fanny vs. Philip	Fanny, a fellow art student, acts as a foil to Philip in her inability to recognize her lack of talent, while Philip eventually acknowledges his limitations and pursues other interests.
3. Thorpe vs. Philip	Thorpe Athelny, a flamboyant and optimistic character, contrasts with Philip’s more reserved and introspective nature, emphasizing the different ways in which people approach life and its challenges.

3. Allegory

Example	Explanation
1. Philip’s clubfoot	Philip’s clubfoot represents the physical and emotional burdens he carries throughout the novel, symbolizing the universal human struggle to overcome personal limitations and obstacles.
2. The novel’s title	The title “Of Human Bondage” suggests themes of slavery and constraint, but the novel ultimately serves as an allegory for the quest for personal freedom and self-discovery.
3. The pursuit of art	The pursuit of art in the novel can be seen as an allegory for the search for meaning and purpose in life, as well as the struggle to find one’s own unique voice and place in the world.

4. Flashback

Example	Explanation
1. Philip’s childhood memories	Throughout the novel, Philip reflects on his childhood experiences, providing insight into his character development and the events that shaped his life.
2. Philip’s time in Heidelberg	Flashbacks to Philip’s time studying in Heidelberg offer insight into his intellectual growth and his evolving perspective on art, literature, and philosophy.
3. Philip’s previous relationships	Philip’s reflections on his past romantic relationships serve to illuminate the patterns and challenges he faces in his ongoing quest for love and happiness.

5. Imagery

Example	Explanation
1. Descriptions of London	The detailed descriptions of London’s streets, buildings, and atmosphere evoke a vivid sense of place, immersing the reader in Philip’s experiences within the city.
2. Nature and the countryside	The imagery of the English countryside and the natural world contrasts with the urban environment, highlighting the tensions between the beauty of nature and the harsh realities of human existence.
3. Art and painting	The various images of art and painting throughout the novel serve to emphasize the importance of self-expression and the quest for meaning in life, as well as the transformative power of art.

6. Foreshadowing

Example	Explanation
1. Philip’s early infatuations	Philip’s early infatuations with various women foreshadow his later tumultuous relationships, providing insight into his struggle to find true love and happiness.
2. Fanny’s artistic struggles	Fanny’s struggle to succeed as an artist foreshadows Philip’s eventual realization that he must find a different path, as he recognizes his own limitations in the pursuit of artistic success.
3. Philip’s financial difficulties	Philip’s early financial difficulties foreshadow his later struggles to maintain financial stability, which ultimately shape his choices and force him to reassess his priorities.

7. Irony

Example	Explanation
1. Philip’s search for freedom	Despite Philip’s quest for freedom, he often finds himself trapped in difficult situations and relationships, highlighting the irony of the human condition and the complexities of personal liberation.
2. Philip’s disillusionment with art	Philip’s initial pursuit of art as a means to find meaning and self-expression ironically leads him to the realization that he lacks the talent necessary to succeed as an artist.
3. Mildred’s ultimate fate	Mildred, who manipulates and mistreats Philip throughout the novel, ultimately suffers a tragic and lonely fate, which serves as a form of ironic justice for her actions.

8. Symbolism

Example	Explanation
1. Philip’s clubfoot	Philip’s clubfoot symbolizes his personal struggles and limitations, as well as the universal human struggle to overcome obstacles and find self-acceptance.
2. Art and painting	Art and painting serve as symbols of self-expression, creativity, and the search for meaning in life, as well as the transformative power of artistic expression.
3. The novel’s title	The title “Of Human Bondage” represents themes of constraint, enslavement, and the human struggle to achieve freedom and self-realization.

9. Motif

Example	Explanation
1. The search for meaning	The search for meaning in life is a recurring motif in the novel, as Philip explores various avenues for self-expression and purpose, from art to relationships.
2. The struggle for self-acceptance	The struggle for self-acceptance is another recurring motif, as Philip grapples with his own limitations and insecurities while seeking a sense of belonging and self-worth.
3. The complexity of human relationships	The novel repeatedly explores the complexities of human relationships, as Philip navigates the challenges of love, friendship, and family dynamics throughout his life.

10. Parallelism

Example	Explanation
1. Philip and Fanny	The parallel struggles of Philip and Fanny, both aspiring artists, serve to highlight the difficulties in achieving artistic success and the importance of self-awareness and personal growth.
2. Philip’s relationships	The parallel experiences of Philip’s relationships with Mildred and Sally emphasize the contrasting nature of these characters and highlight the different types of love and connection that exist.
3. Philip and Thorpe Athelny	The parallel lives of Philip and Thorpe Athelny, both struggling with personal and financial difficulties, underscore the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

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